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随着商业航天产业的快速发展，私营实体在航天活动中扮演的角色日益重要。在现有国际空间法框架下，国家作为“发射国”承担国际损害赔偿责任的单一主体模式，因商业航天主体多元化、产业商业化而难以得到有效解释与适用。责任主体认定面临范围泛化、事实主体与法律主体不一致的挑战，国家之间及国家与私营实体间复杂的权利义务关系也引发责任划分难题。商业航天国际损害赔偿责任主体制度有两种可选模式：一是赋予私营实体国际损害赔偿责任主体资格，私营实体和国家在国际法层面共同承担责任，简化损害赔偿的求偿与追偿程序；二是延续国家作为唯一责任主体的传统制度，通过国内法细化责任划分机制，强调国家的授权与监督义务。完善商业航天国际损害赔偿责任制度不仅有助于促进商业航天长远发展，还能够为中国商业航天的制度构建提供指引。
Abstract：In the context of the rapid advancements witnessed within the commercial space industry, private entities are playing an increasingly prominent role in space activities. However, under the prevailing framework of international space law, the single-subject model of the State as the “launching State”, which assumes liability for international damages, is challenging to interpret and apply effectively due to the diverse subjects and complex industrial chain. The identification of the liable subject is faced with the challenges of a generalised scope of subjects and inconsistency between de facto and de jure subjects. The intricate interplay of rights and obligations between States, as well as between States and private entities, also gives rise to difficulties in the allocation of liabilities. In the long term, two feasible models regarding subjects of liability emerge for commercial spaceflight. The first is to grant private entities the status of subjects of international liability for damages, whereby both private entities and the State are jointly liable at the international law level, which can simplify the procedures for claiming and recovering damages. The second is to continue the traditional system in which the State is the sole subject of liability. Through domestic law, the obligation of State to authorise and monitor is reinforced by the mechanism for the division of liability. The enhancement of the international liability system for damages is of paramount importance in promoting sustainable development of commercial industry, while concurrently providing a potential avenue for the establishment of China's commercial spaceflight legal regime.
(1)Scott Kerr,“Liability for Space Debris Collisions and the Kessler Syndrome(part 1)”, the Space Review, November 11, 2017, available at(last visited on March 19, 2025).
(2)Loren Grush,“A Bug in SpaceX’s Communication System Kept the Company in the Dark About Potential Satellite Collision”, the Verge, September 5, 2019, available at(last visited on March 19, 2025).
(1)Christian Joseph Robison,“Changing Responsibility for A Changing Environment:Evaluating the Traditional Interpretation of Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty in Light of Private Industry”, 5 University of Bologna Law Review(2020), pp. 1-27.
(2)Neni Ruhaeni,“Direct International Responsibility of Non-Governmental Entities in the Utilization of Outer Space”, 1 Padjajaran Jurnal Ilmu Hukum(2020), pp. 102-120；薄守省：《论私人也应作为空间物体损害赔偿的责任主体》，《北京航空航天大学学报（社会科学版）》2007年第3期，第35-37页。
(3)See Bartosz Ziemblick, Yevgeniya Oralova,“Private Entities in Outer Space Activities:Liability Regime Reconsidered”, 56 Space Policy(2021), 101427;参见薄守省：《从美俄卫星相撞事件看航天活动之损害赔偿责任》，《暨南学报（哲学社会科学版）》2010年第4期，第15-20页。
(4)See Dimitri Linden,“The Impact of National Space Legislation on Private Space Undertakings:Regulatory Competition vs. Harmonization”, 1 Journal of Science Policy&Governance(2016), pp. 1-17;参见李寿平、王天敬：《论卫星商业发射中的国际责任》，《河北法学》2013年第3期，第35-40页。国家作为主要国际主体，在国际责任的承担中占有主要的责任主体地位。具体参见Robert Kolb, The International Law of State Responsibility(Edward Elgar Publishing, 2017), pp. 15-16.
(1)国际责任是指所有国际主体，即所有具有一定国际法律人格的实体和个人在国际关系中所应承担的责任。
(2)Bin Cheng,“Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty Revisited:‘International Responsibility,’‘National Activities,’and‘The Appropriate State’”, 26(1)Journal of Space Law(1998), p. 9.
(3)Samantha Besson ed., Theories of International Responsibility Law(Cambridge University Press, 2022), pp. 221-223.
(4)See Muchlinski, Ortino and Schreuer(eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Investment Law(Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 553; James Crawford, State Responsibility:the General Part.(Cambridge University Press, 2013), p. 43; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), ICJ Rep. 2007 p. 43, para. 209; Noble Ventures Inc. v. Romania, ICSID Case No. ARB/01/11, 12 October 2005, para. 69; US-Antidumping and Countervailing Duties, WT/DS379/AB/R, 11March 2011, para. 311.
(5)H. L. A. Hart, Punishment and Responsibility:Essays in The Philosophy of Law(Oxford University Press, 2008),p. 216.
(6)See Hanqin Xue, Transboundary Damage in International Law(Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 313.
(1)特雷尔冶炼厂仲裁案的判决确立了国家对本国境内的私人活动引起的跨界环境损害进行赔偿的先例，具体参见Trail Smelter Case(UK v. Canada)(1941)3 RIAA 1905.
(2)关于科孚海峡案的判决可以具体参见Corfu Channel case(United Kingdom v. Albania), Judgment, ICJ Report1949, p.22.
(3)核试验案的判决具体参见Nuclear Tests Case(New Zealand v. France), Judgment, ICJ Report 1974, para. 49.
(4)Alex Ansong,“The Concept of Sovereign Equality of States in International Law”, 2(1)GIMPA Law Review(2016), pp. 14-16.
(5)李将：《国际法上个人责任的法理：制度渊源与价值关联》，《国际法研究》2021年第2期，第104页。
(1)三种情况的具体规定分别载于《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案》第八条、第四条、第十一条。
(2)Frans Von der Dunk,“Liability versus Responsibility in Space Law:Misconception or Misconstruction?” 21Space, Cyber, and Telecommunications Law Program Faculty Publications(1992), pp. 365-366.
(3)参见[德]斯蒂芬·霍贝等：《科隆空间法评注（第一卷）》，李寿平等译，世界知识出版社2017年版，第30页。
(4)Christina Isnardi,“Problems with Enforcing International Space Law on Private Actors”, 58 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law(2019), p. 502.
(5)See Malay Adhikari, Legal Regulation of Private Actors in Outer Space:India’s Role(Routledge, 2019), p. 39.
(1)《外空条约》第七条。
(2)李寿平、赵云：《外层空间法专论》，光明日报出版社2009年版，第73页。
(3)刘浩：《空间活动发展对“发射国”概念的挑战》，《法学》2014年第4期，第42-43页。
(1)《责任公约》第五条。
(2)贺其治：《外层空间法》，法律出版社1994年版，第95页。
(3)《责任公约》第四条。
(1)Diederiks-Vershoor, W. Paul Gormley,“Future Legal Status of Nongovernmental Entities in Outer Space:Private Individuals and Companies as Subjects and Beneficiaries of International Space Law”, 5 Journal of Space Law(1977),pp.126-127.
(2)Frans G. Von der Dunk,“Billion-Dollar Questions? Legal Aspects of Commercial Space Activities”, 23 Uniform Law Review(2018), p. 419.
(3)具体参见联合国外空委文件《适用“发射国”概念》, A/RES/59/115, 2004年1月25日。
(1)Economist,“Space Law is Inadequate for the Boom in Human Activity There”, the Economist, July 18, 2019,available at(last visited on March 19 2025).
(2)Alexander P Reinert,“Updating the Liability Regime in Outer Space:Why Spacefaring Companies Should Be Internationally Liable for Their Space Objects”, 62 William&Mary Law Review(2020), p. 341.
(3)See Frans G. Von der Dunk, National Space Legislation in Europe:Issues of Authorisation of Private Space Activities in the Light of Developments in European Space Cooperation(Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2011), p. 92.
(1)See Armel Kerrest,“Launching Spacecraft from the Sea and the Outer Space Treaty:The Sea Launch Project”,40 Proceedings on the Law of Outer Space(1997), pp. 267-268.
(2)高国柱：《外层空间法前沿问题研究》，法律出版社2011年版，第156页。
(3)参见[德]斯蒂芬·霍贝等，《科隆空间法评注（第二卷）》，李寿平等译，中国宇航出版社2023年版，第168页。
(4)See William B. Wirin,“Practical implications of Launching State and Appropriate State Definitions”, 37 Proceedings on the Law of Outer Space(1994), pp. 109-117.
(5)See Bockstiegel Karl-H,“Terms Appropriate State and Launching State in the Space Treaties Indicators of State Responsibility and Liability for State and Private Space Activities”, 34 Proceedings on the Law of Outer Space(1992),pp. 13-16; Karl-Heinz Boeckstiegel,“The Term‘Launching State’ in International Space Law”, in 37 Proceedings on the Law of Outer Space(1994), pp. 80-83.
(1)See Armel Kerrest,“Remarks on the Notion of Launching State”, 42 Proceedings on the Law of Outer Space(1999), pp. 308-315.
(2)图表来源：笔者自制。
(1)参见蒋圣力、宋铁辉：《在轨空间物体所有权转移法律问题探析》，《南都学坛》2020年第6期，第85-87页。
(2)图表来源：笔者自制。
(1)参见龙杰：《外层空间物体登记制度的立法问题》，《地方立法研究》2019年第3期，第104页。
(2)See Niki Giannakou,“From Yachts to Spacecraft:Legal Aspects of Space Tourism Ventures in Comparison with the Legal Regime Governing Marine Touris”, 219 Acta Astronautica(2024), p. 394.
(1)参见顾臻彦、陆朱思铭：《论商业性空间碎片移除法律责任制度之构建》，《上海法学研究》集刊2022年第7卷，华东政法大学，2022年11月，第230页。
(2)See Gotthard Mark Gauci, Kevin Aquilina,“The Legal Fiction of a Genuine Link as a Requirement for the Grant of Nationality to Ships and Humans–The Triumph of Formality over Substance?” 17(1)International and Comparative Law Review(2017), p. 169.
(3)See Feriha Beyza Eryavuz,“The Concept of the Launching State in the Context of the Liability Regime in Space Law and the TURKSAT-5B Satellite”, 9(1)Istanbul Medipol Universitesi Hukuk Fakultesi Dergisi(2022), p. 38.
(1)See Caley Albert,“Liability in International Law and the Ramifications on Commercial Space Launches and Space Tourism”, 36 Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review(2014), pp. 251-254.
(1)See Dimitri Linden,“The Impact of National Space Legislation on Private Space Undertakings:Regulatory Competition vs Harmonization”, 8(1)Journal of Science Policy&Governance(2016), p. 7.
(2)See Hanqin Xue, Transboundary Damage in International Law(Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 107.
(3)See Bartosz Ziemblicki,“Private Entities in Outer Space Activities:Liability Regime Reconsidered”, 56 Space Policy(2021), p. 8.
(4)See Report of the Commission to the General Assembly on the Work of its fifty-eighth session:Text of the Draft Principles on the Allocation of Loss in the Case of Transboundary Harm Arising Out of Hazardous Activities with Commentaries, United Nations, 2006.
(1)参见刘久：《论核损害责任国际法律机制的发展》，《法学杂志》2022年第5期，第111页。
(2)参见《关于修正1963年1月31日公约以补充1960年7月29日〈关于第三者责任领域公约〉的议定书》第3(a)条。
(3)参见《关于修正1963年1月31日公约以补充1960年7月29日〈关于第三者责任领域公约〉的议定书》第3(b)(i)条，第7条。
(4)参见《关于修正1963年1月31日公约以补充1960年7月29日〈关于第三者责任领域公约〉的议定书》第3(b)(ii)条。
(5)具体参见国际法委员会（International Law Commission, ILC）第48届会议专题工作组向联合国大会提交的《国际法不加禁止的行为所产生的损害性后果的国际责任条款草案》。
(6)参见《外空条约》第6条。
(1)David Hsu, Nicolaj Siggelkow,“Why Big Business is Making a Giant Leap into Space”, Knowledge at Wharton,January 4, 2019, available at(last visited on March 19 2025).
(2)Brian Wang,“SpaceX Operating Margin on Rockets Increasing by over 10%to 74+%”, Next Big Future, December 4, 2018, available at(last visited on March 19 2025).
(3)Trefis Team,“What’s Driving SpaceX’s Sky High Valuation?” Forbes, May 30, 2018, available at(last visited on March 192025).
(4)Michael Sheetz,“Space Companies Raised a Record5.8 Billion in Private Investments Last Year”, CNBC,January 14, 2020, available at(last visited on March 19 2025).
(5)See Mohamed Abdelhamid, Guoyu Wang,“Addressing the Liability Regime in the Space Convention:A Legal Reformation of the Concept of Damage and Its Application to Private Entities”, 2 US-China Law Review(2024), p.51.
(1)See Caley Albert,“Liability in International Law and the Ramifications on Commercial Space Launches and Space Tourism”, 36 Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review(2014), pp. 248-249.
(1)图表来源：笔者自制。
(2)See Denis Bensoussan,“Space Tourism Risks:A Space Insurance Perspective”, 66(11-12)Acta Astronautica(2010), p. 1637.
(3)See Joseph N, Satellite Communications(Springer Scienc&Business Media, 2011), p.82.
(1)参见林灿铃：《国家在跨界损害领域的预防义务》，《比较法研究》2022年第6期，第178-179页。
(1)具体参见联合国外空委《就有关和平探索和利用外层空间的国家立法提出的建议》, A/RES/68/74, 2013年12月16日。
(1)See Cécile Gaubert, Insurance in the Context of Space Activities in Frans von der Dunk, ed., Handbook of Space Law(Edward Elgar Publishing, 2015), p. 912.
(2)图表来源：笔者自制。
(3)See Maria A. Pozza, Joel A. Dennerley, eds., Risk Management in Outer Space Activities,(Springer Singapore,2022), p. 35.
基本信息:
中图分类号:D999.1
引用信息:
[1]龙杰,陈文真.商业航天国际损害赔偿责任的主体认定与责任划分[J].国际法学刊,2025,No.25(04):70-95+156-157.
基金信息:
国家社会科学基金青年项目“人类命运共同体理念下载人航天商业化制度构建研究”（21CFX088）的阶段性成果
2025-08-15
2025-08-15